A seminal 2010 study by Joseph Henrich, Steven Heine, and Ara Norenzayan, published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences, delivered a stark revelation to the scientific community: a staggering 96% of psychological research data at the time was derived from participants in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. This profoundly unrepresentative sample, the researchers argued, severely limited the ability of psychologists to claim universal truths about human nature. Their work served as a potent wake-up call, prompting a call for a more diverse and geographically expansive approach to psychological inquiry.
However, the decade that followed this groundbreaking assertion revealed a persistent challenge. A follow-up study conducted by Henrich, Norenzayan, and Coren Apicella found that a disheartening 94% of studies still relied on WEIRD participants. This enduring "WEIRD problem" is not born from a lack of awareness or willingness among scholars to address the issue. Instead, it stems from the inherent difficulties in conducting research in unfamiliar linguistic and cultural landscapes, navigating participant recruitment complexities, and overcoming technological barriers. Despite these obstacles, overcoming them is presented as not only achievable but essential for the advancement of psychological science.
The Genesis of a Global Research Initiative
The persistent imbalance in psychological research sampling has prompted innovative solutions. In 2023, the author, a social psychologist with roots in both the United States and Russia, founded Besample. This platform is specifically designed to facilitate global participant recruitment for scientists, aiming to directly address the challenges highlighted by the WEIRD problem. Besample’s initial three years of operation have demonstrated a significant demand among researchers for more diverse participant pools, indicating a widespread readiness to move beyond the confines of WEIRD societies.
To date, Besample has partnered with over 1,700 scholars, supporting more than 880 studies and amassing nearly 330,000 data points from participants across 42 countries spanning Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe, and South America. The data collected through Besample is already contributing to the academic discourse, informing crucial cross-cultural research on topics such as loneliness, value systems, climate change perceptions, and family dynamics, with findings beginning to appear in leading academic journals.
Seven Crucial Lessons for Culturally Grounded Research
Through its extensive work facilitating global research, Besample has identified several key lessons for scientists seeking to conduct high-quality, culturally nuanced studies beyond Western contexts. These insights underscore the necessity of adapting research methodologies to align with the diverse realities of global participants.
1. The Global Linguistic Landscape: Beyond English Dominance
A common pitfall for researchers from North America and Western Europe is the default use of English for studies conducted in non-English-speaking countries. While English may suffice in former British colonies, its efficacy diminishes significantly in many parts of Asia and Latin America. This linguistic bias is problematic because individuals fluent in English in these regions often represent a socioeconomically privileged segment of the population, typically those who have had access to superior educational opportunities.
Furthermore, even highly proficient English speakers can experience the "foreign-language effect," a phenomenon where communication in a non-native tongue can lead to emotional detachment and influence response patterns. Studies indicate that participants find it easier and more natural to complete tasks in their native language, which can impact the validity and reliability of the data collected.
The implications of linguistic barriers extend to matters of dignity and respect. In Turkey, for example, some potential participants declined to engage with studies presented solely in English, perceiving the absence of a Turkish translation as disrespectful. Kazakhstan presented an even more pronounced challenge, with respondents withdrawing at the consent stage when faced with dense legal English. Their perception was that an inability to fully comprehend formal agreements posed a significant risk. To mitigate these issues, Besample recommends translating studies into local languages in countries where average English proficiency is below 50%. This approach not only boosts sample size and representativeness but also acknowledges the cultural context of participants. The advent of AI-driven translation tools, coupled with the expertise of local cultural consultants for proofreading and adaptation, has made this practice more feasible than ever.
2. Rethinking Attention Checks: Accuracy Over Assumption
The rise of online research has led to an increased emphasis on ensuring participant attention, resulting in the development of "attention checks" designed to filter out low-quality responses. However, in global research, the assumption that failing these checks reflects a lack of focus or engagement can be misleading. Such failures are often attributable to language barriers or a lack of familiarity with the research format, rather than a deficit in participant effort.
An analysis of data quality from online research platforms co-authored by the author revealed that Besample respondents with lower English proficiency could fail attention checks while still providing high-quality data for other survey questions. This suggests that attention-check performance is not an infallible proxy for data quality. Before dismissing responses, researchers are urged to consider linguistic factors or, ideally, design localized quality checks that assess response consistency and accuracy within the specific cultural context of the study.
3. Deconstructing Race and Ethnicity: Universal Categories Do Not Exist
Another common pitfall is the imposition of Western-centric frameworks for questions about race and ethnicity. While race is a prominent identity marker in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, its salience varies significantly across cultures. The concept of ethnicity is even more complex, with estimates suggesting over 800 distinct ethnic groups globally, and potentially over 7,000 if ethnolinguistic groups are considered.
A survey conducted by Besample involving nearly 1,000 participants from 11 diverse countries—including Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria, Spain, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States—highlighted this complexity. When asked about self-identification regarding race and ethnicity, open-ended responses revealed that many participants described themselves using ethnic group affiliations or geographic regions rather than conventional racial classifications. In multiple-choice scenarios, individuals from countries like Ukraine, Morocco, and Indonesia selected standard categories significantly less often. They demonstrated a greater inclination to identify when presented with options from an extended ethnic scale that included identifiers often omitted in Western-centric questionnaires. Failing to adapt race and ethnicity questions can therefore lead to the collection of meaningless or even misleading data.
4. Navigating the Nuances of Gender Identity
Cultural contexts profoundly shape understandings of gender identity, making even seemingly simple questions complex. In Indonesia, for instance, Besample encountered a puzzling trend where a significant number of respondents selected "other" when asked to identify as pria (male), perempuan (female), or lainnya (other). While Indonesia is known for some societies that recognize more than two gender categories, most respondents were not from those specific regions. Further investigation revealed that young Indonesian men often used the term laki-laki to refer to themselves, reserving pria for older, adult males. Consequently, they selected "other" to input the term laki-laki, a distinction that a simple male/female dichotomy would miss.
The concept of hijra in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal offers another illustration. Hijra represent a distinct third gender category, often with historical social and ritual roles, and are not accurately encompassed by Western concepts of "man," "woman," or even "transgender." When individuals identify as nonbinary globally, the meaning and expression of that identity can differ substantially from Western interpretations.
Beyond terminology, researchers must be cognizant of societal attitudes towards various gender identities and sexual orientations. In many regions, prejudice or legal repercussions associated with certain identities necessitate careful consideration before initiating research.
5. The Multifaceted Nature of Marital Status
Marital status, a seemingly straightforward demographic variable, carries significant cultural weight and can be far more complex than Western researchers often assume. In South Africa, for example, distinguishing between civil ceremonies and traditional unions formalized through practices like lobola—a negotiated transfer of property between families—is crucial for accurate data.
Furthermore, while Western societies predominantly operate under the assumption of monogamy, polygynous unions account for a substantial percentage of reported marriages in countries across West Africa, including Senegal, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, and Togo, with figures ranging from 40% to 60%.
The concept of divorce also presents complexities. In many countries, divorce is legally restricted, socially stigmatized, or practically inaccessible, rendering it an unreliable indicator of relationship quality or stability. The Philippines, where divorce is not legally available for most citizens and marital dissolution primarily occurs through costly and infrequent Catholic annulments, exemplifies this challenge. Consequently, less than 2% of the population has divorced, separated, or had a marriage annulled.
6. Redefining Households and Income in a Global Context
The Western construct of the household as a unit of income, consumption, and decision-making often fails to capture the economic realities in non-Western cultures. In rural Malawi, for instance, households can be spatially dispersed, with fluid membership and major decisions dictated by matrilineal or patrilineal kinship lines. In such contexts, kin social networks and resource flows provide a more accurate measure of economic standing than the traditional Western household model.
Moreover, individuals often assess their income in terms of monthly earnings and immediate purchasing power, rather than abstract annual household income figures, particularly when dealing with foreign currencies.
The practicalities of participant compensation also require adaptation. Reliance on bank transfers or PayPal, common in the West, is not universally applicable. In many countries, cash and mobile transfers are the norm, and PayPal is virtually unknown. Bureaucratic hurdles can make small bank transfers inconvenient, sometimes requiring in-person bank visits to justify the transaction. Besample has addressed this by establishing a network of over 20 country- and region-specific partners, offering more than 45 different payment methods to adequately reward research participants.
7. Challenging Conventional Technical Criteria for Data Quality
Traditional technical criteria for data quality, such as unique IP addresses, can be misleading in a global context. In regions with limited IP availability, like parts of Africa and Asia, it is common for multiple users to share a single IP address, particularly within mobile broadband networks where dynamic IP allocation is used. Assuming that multiple logins from the same IP indicate repeated participation can lead to the erroneous exclusion of valid data.
Similarly, the assumption that respondents using desktop or laptop computers yield higher quality data, and the subsequent optimization of studies for PCs, can create significant sampling biases. In many non-Western countries, computer access is limited, potentially excluding a majority of the population. This can inadvertently skew samples towards higher-income, urban participants with greater digital access. Furthermore, even if a survey is mobile-compatible, unreliable internet access or limited mobile data can hinder the completion of long surveys, especially those incorporating large files or videos. Data that appears to be of "low quality" based on these technical criteria may, in fact, reflect local infrastructural and socioeconomic realities. Adherence to such conventional checks can result in biased samples, slower data collection, and a failure to capture the true diversity of non-Western regions.
The Imperative of Intellectual Humility
The lessons learned from efforts to move beyond WEIRD populations offer practical guidance for researchers. More broadly, they signal a necessary paradigm shift towards making the social and behavioral sciences truly global. This transformation requires a willingness to embrace the unexpected and to approach the study of the world with a foundational commitment to intellectual humility. As scientists venture beyond familiar territories, acknowledging the limitations of their own perspectives and actively seeking to understand diverse realities will be paramount to achieving a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of human behavior. The journey beyond WEIRD is not merely an academic exercise; it is a critical step towards a more inclusive and representative scientific endeavor.
